Which of the Following Statements Is Not Mentioned in the Text? The Art of the Actor

Person who acts in a dramatic or comic production and works in film, idiot box, theatre, or radio

An player or actress is a person who portrays a character in a functioning.^[ane] The role player performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of the theatre or in modern media such as film, radio, and television. The analogous Greek term is ὑποκριτής ( hupokritḗs ), literally "one who answers".^[two] The actor'due south interpretation of a role—the art of acting—pertains to the role played, whether based on a existent person or fictional character. This can likewise be considered an "player'southward role," which was called this due to scrolls being used in the theaters. Interpretation occurs even when the role player is "playing themselves", as in some forms of experimental performance art.

Formerly, in aboriginal Greece and the medieval world, and in England at the time of William Shakespeare, only men could get actors, and women's roles were by and large played by men or boys.^[3] While Ancient Rome did allow female phase performers, only a small-scale minority of them were given speaking parts. The commedia dell'arte of Italian republic, however, allowed professional person women to perform early on; Lucrezia Di Siena, whose proper name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by proper name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Italy (and in Europe).^[4] Afterward the English Restoration of 1660, women began to appear onstage in England. In modern times, especially in pantomime and some operas, women occasionally play the roles of boys or young men.^[5]

History [edit]

The commencement recorded example of a performing actor occurred in 534 BC (though the changes in calendar over the years make information technology hard to determine exactly) when the Greek performer Thespis stepped onto the phase at the Theatre Dionysus to get the beginning known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Before Thespis' deed, Grecian stories were merely expressed in song, dance, and in third person narrative. In honor of Thespis, actors are commonly called Thespians. The exclusively male actors in the theatre of ancient Greece performed in iii types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play.^[6] This developed and expanded considerably under the Romans. The theatre of aboriginal Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of situation comedies, to loftier-style, verbally elaborate tragedies.

Every bit the Western Roman Empire fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman power was moved eastward to Constantinople. Records bear witness that mime, pantomime, scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies, dances, and other entertainments were very popular. From the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a catamenia of full general disorder. Small nomadic bands of actors traveled around Europe throughout the menstruation, performing wherever they could notice an audience; in that location is no testify that they produced anything but crude scenes.^[7] Traditionally, actors were not of high status; therefore, in the Early on Middle Ages, traveling acting troupes were oftentimes viewed with distrust. Early Middle Ages actors were denounced by the Church during the Night Ages, every bit they were viewed as dangerous, immoral, and pagan. In many parts of Europe, traditional beliefs of the region and time meant actors could non receive a Christian burial.

In the Early Centre Ages, churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of biblical events. By the middle of the 11th century, liturgical drama had spread from Russia to Scandinavia to Italy. The Feast of Fools encouraged the development of comedy. In the Late Middle Ages, plays were produced in 127 towns. These vernacular Mystery plays often contained comedy, with actors playing devils, villains, and clowns.^[8] The majority of actors in these plays were fatigued from the local population. Amateur performers in England were exclusively male person, but other countries had female person performers.

There were several secular plays staged in the Middle Ages, the primeval of which is The Play of the Greenwood by Adam de la Halle in 1276. Information technology contains satirical scenes and folk textile such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences. Farces as well rose in popularity later the 13th century. At the end of the Tardily Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained pocket-sized companies of professional actors. First in the mid-16th century, Commedia dell'arte troupes performed lively improvisational playlets beyond Europe for centuries. Commedia dell'arte was an histrion-centred theatre, requiring trivial scenery and very few props. Plays were loose frameworks that provided situations, complications, and outcome of the action, effectually which the actors improvised. The plays used stock characters. A troupe typically consisted of 13 to xiv members. Almost actors were paid a share of the play's profits roughly equivalent to the sizes of their roles.

Renaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as the mystery plays, "morality plays", and the "university drama" that attempted to recreate Athenian tragedy. The Italian tradition of Commedia dell'arte, besides every bit the elaborate masques frequently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre. Since earlier the reign of Elizabeth I, companies of players were attached to households of leading aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations. These became the foundation for the professional players that performed on the Elizabethan stage.

The development of the theatre and opportunities for acting ceased when Puritan opposition to the stage banned the performance of all plays within London. Puritans viewed the theatre as immoral. The re-opening of the theatres in 1660 signaled a renaissance of English drama. English language comedies written and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710 are collectively called "Restoration one-act". Restoration comedy is notorious for its sexual explicitness. At this point, women were allowed for the offset fourth dimension to appear on the English language stage, exclusively in female roles. This period saw the introduction of the first professional person actresses and the ascent of the offset celebrity actors.

19th century [edit]

In the 19th century, the negative reputation of actors was largely reversed, and acting became an honored, popular profession and fine art.^[ix] The rising of the role player as celebrity provided the transition, equally audiences flocked to their favorite "stars". A new role emerged for the actor-managers, who formed their own companies and controlled the actors, the productions, and the financing.^[10] When successful, they congenital upwardly a permanent clientele that flocked to their productions. They could enlarge their audience by going on tour beyond the state, performing a repertoire of well-known plays, such as those by Shakespeare. The newspapers, individual clubs, pubs, and coffee shops rang with lively debates evaluating the relative merits of the stars and the productions. Henry Irving (1838–1905) was the most successful of the British actor-managers.^[11] Irving was renowned for his Shakespearean roles, and for such innovations as turning out the house lights and then that attention could focus more on the stage and less on the audience. His visitor toured across Great britain, equally well as Europe and the U.s.a., demonstrating the ability of star actors and celebrated roles to attract enthusiastic audiences. His knighthood in 1895 indicated full acceptance into the higher circles of British society.^[12]

20th century [edit]

Past the early 20th century, the economics of big-calibration productions displaced the actor-director model. It was as well hard to find people who combined a genius at acting besides as management, so specialization divided the roles equally stage managers and afterwards theatre directors emerged. Financially, much larger capital letter was required to operate out of a major city. The solution was corporate ownership of chains of theatres, such as by the Theatrical Syndicate, Edward Laurillard, and especially The Shubert Organization. By catering to tourists, theaters in large cities increasingly favored long runs of highly pop plays, especially musicals. Large proper noun stars became even more essential.^[13]

and the Byzantine Empire

Techniques [edit]

• Classical interim is a philosophy of interim that integrates the expression of the body, vox, imagination, personalizing, improvisation, external stimuli, and script analysis. It is based on the theories and systems of select classical actors and directors including Konstantin Stanislavski and Michel Saint-Denis.
• In Stanislavski'due south system, besides known equally Stanislavski'southward method, actors draw upon their own feelings and experiences to convey the "truth" of the grapheme they portray. Actors puts themselves in the mindset of the character, finding things in common to give a more genuine portrayal of the character.
• Method acting is a range of techniques based on for training actors to attain better characterizations of the characters they play, as formulated by Lee Strasberg. Strasberg's method is based upon the thought that to develop an emotional and cerebral agreement of their roles, actors should use their own experiences to identify personally with their characters. Information technology is based on aspects of Stanislavski'due south system. Other acting techniques are also based on Stanislavski's ideas, such every bit those of Stella Adler and Sanford Meisner, only these are not considered "method acting".^[fourteen]
• Meisner technique requires the actor to focus totally on the other thespian as though he or she is real and they only exist in that moment. This is a method that makes the actors in the scene seem more than authentic to the audience. Information technology is based on the principle that acting finds its expression in people's response to other people and circumstances. Is it based on Stanislavski'due south arrangement.

As the reverse sex [edit]

Formerly, in some societies, only men could become actors. In ancient Greece and ancient Rome^[15] and the medieval world, information technology was considered disgraceful for a adult female to proceed stage; nevertheless, women did perform in Ancient Rome, and over again entered the stage in the Commedia dell'arte in Italy in the 16th century; Lucrezia Di Siena became the perhaps outset professional extra since Aboriginal Rome. France and Spain, as well, also had female person actors in the 16th century. In William Shakespeare's England, withal, women's roles were generally played by men or boys.^[3]

When an 18-year Puritan prohibition of drama was lifted after the English language Restoration of 1660, women began to appear on phase in England. Margaret Hughes is often credited as the starting time professional actress on the English language stage.^[sixteen] Previously, Angelica Martinelli, a member of a visiting Italian Commedia dell' arte company, did perform in England every bit early on equally 1578,^[17] only such strange guest appearances had been rare exceptions and there had been no professional person English actresses in England. This prohibition concluded during the reign of Charles II in part because he enjoyed watching actresses on phase.^[eighteen] Specifically, Charles II issued letters patent to Thomas Killigrew and William Davenant, granting them the monopoly right to form two London theatre companies to perform "serious" drama, and the letters patent were reissued in 1662 with revisions assuasive actresses to perform for the kickoff time.^[19]

According to the OED, the first occurrence of the term actress was in 1608 and is ascribed to Middleton. In the 19th century, many viewed women in acting negatively, as actresses were often courtesans and associated with promiscuity. Despite these prejudices, the 19th century also saw the get-go female person acting "stars", nearly notably Sarah Bernhardt.^[twenty]

In Nippon, onnagata, or men taking on female roles, were used in kabuki theatre when women were banned from performing on phase during the Edo menses; this convention continues. In some forms of Chinese drama such as Beijing opera, men traditionally performed all the roles, including female roles, while in Shaoxing opera women often play all roles, including male ones.^[21]

In modern times, women occasionally played the roles of boys or young men. For case, the phase role of Peter Pan is traditionally played past a woman, as are most principal boys in British pantomime. Opera has several "breeches roles" traditionally sung past women, commonly mezzo-sopranos. Examples are Hansel in Hänsel und Gretel, Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro and Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier.

Women playing male roles are uncommon in film, with notable exceptions. In 1982, Stina Ekblad played the mysterious Ismael Retzinsky in Fanny and Alexander, and Linda Hunt received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Billy Kwan in The Yr of Living Dangerously. In 2007, Cate Blanchett was nominated for the Academy Honor for Best Supporting Actress for playing Jude Quinn, a fictionalized representation of Bob Dylan in the 1960s, in I'grand Not In that location.

In the 2000s, women playing men in alive theatre is particularly common in presentations of older plays, such equally Shakespearean works with large numbers of male characters in roles where gender is inconsequential.^[5]

Having an actor apparel equally the opposite sex for comic upshot is also a long-standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Near of Shakespeare'south comedies include instances of overt cross-dressing, such as Francis Flute in A Midsummer Nighttime's Dream. The movie A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum stars Jack Gilford dressing as a immature bride. Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the Billy Wilder film Some Similar It Hot. Cross-dressing for comic effect was a oftentimes used device in most of the Carry On films. Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams accept each appeared in a hit comedy moving-picture show (Tootsie and Mrs. Doubtfire, respectively) in which they played most scenes dressed equally a woman.

Occasionally, the issue is further complicated, for instance, by a woman playing a woman acting every bit a man—who and then pretends to be a woman, such as Julie Andrews in Victor/Victoria, or Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Honey. In Information technology's Pat: The Movie, film-watchers never larn the gender of the androgynous principal characters Pat and Chris (played by Julia Sweeney and Dave Foley). Similarly, in the aforementioned example of The Spousal relationship of Figaro, there is a scene in which Cherubino (a male character portrayed past a adult female) dresses up and acts like a woman; the other characters in the scene are aware of a unmarried level of gender role obfuscation, while the audience is aware of two levels.

A few modernistic roles are played past a member of the contrary sexual practice to emphasize the gender fluidity of the role. Edna Turnblad in Hairspray was played past Divine in the 1988 original film, Harvey Fierstein in the Broadway musical, and John Travolta in the 2007 movie musical. Eddie Redmayne was nominated for an Academy Award for playing Lili Elbe (a trans woman) in 2015's The Danish Daughter.^[22]

The term actress [edit]

In dissimilarity to Aboriginal Greek theatre, Aboriginal Roman theatre did allow female performers. While the bulk of them were seldom employed in speaking roles but rather for dancing, there was a minority of actresses in Rome employed in speaking roles, and also those who achieved wealth, fame and recognition for their art, such as Eucharis, Dionysia, Galeria Copiola and Fabia Arete, and they also formed their own acting guild, the Sociae Mimae, which was manifestly quite wealthy. ^[23] The profession seemingly died out in belatedly artifact.

While women did not brainstorm to perform onstage in England until the 2d half of the 17th-century, they did appear in Italy, Spain and France from the tardily 16th-century onward. Lucrezia Di Siena, whose proper noun is on an acting contract in Rome from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the showtime Italian extra known past name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the starting time primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Italy (and Europe). ^[iv]

After 1660 in England, when women start started to appear on stage, the terms actor or actress were initially used interchangeably for female person performers, but later, influenced past the French actrice, actress became the unremarkably used term for women in theater and picture show. The etymology is a unproblematic derivation from thespian with -ess added.^[24] When referring to groups of performers of both sexes, actors is preferred.^[25]

Within the profession, the re-adoption of the neutral term dates to the post-war period of the 1950 and '60s, when the contributions of women to cultural life in general were existence reviewed.^[26] When The Observer and The Guardian published their new joint style guide in 2010, it stated "Apply ['actor'] for both male and female actors; practise not use actress except when in name of honor, e.one thousand. Oscar for best actress".^[25] The guide'southward authors stated that "actress comes into the same category equally authoress, comedienne, manageress, 'lady doctor', 'male person nurse' and similar obsolete terms that date from a time when professions were largely the preserve of ane sex activity (usually men)." (See male as norm.) "As Whoopi Goldberg put it in an interview with the paper: 'An extra can only play a woman. I'one thousand an actor – I tin play anything.'"^[25] The UK performers' wedlock Disinterestedness has no policy on the use of "actor" or "extra". An Disinterestedness spokesperson said that the union does not believe that in that location is a consensus on the thing and stated that the "...subject divides the profession".^[25] In 2009, the Los Angeles Times stated that "Actress" remains the common term used in major acting awards given to female recipients^[27] (eastward.g., Academy Award for Best Actress).

With regard to the cinema of the The states, the gender-neutral term "histrion" was common in motion picture in the silent film era and the early days of the Motility Flick Production Code, but in the 2000s in a film context, information technology is more often than not deemed archaic.^{[ citation needed ]} Nonetheless, "player" remains in utilise in the theatre, often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company, such every bit the American Players, the Eastward West Players, etc. As well, actors in improvisational theatre may be referred to equally "players".^[28]

Pay disinterestedness [edit]

In 2015, Forbes reported that "...just 21 of the 100 pinnacle-grossing films of 2014 featured a female lead or co-atomic number 82, while only 28.1% of characters in 100 elevation-grossing films were female...".^[29] "In the U.S., there is an "industry-wide [gap] in salaries of all scales. On average, white women earn 78 cents to every dollar a white human makes, while Hispanic women earn 56 cents to a white male person'south dollar, black women 64 cents and Native American women just 59 cents to that."^[29] Forbes' analysis of US acting salaries in 2013 determined that the "...men on Forbes' list of meridian-paid actors for that year made 2 1 / 2 times as much money as the top-paid actresses. That means that Hollywood's best-compensated actresses made just forty cents for every dollar that the best-compensated men made."^{[30] [31] [32]}

Types [edit]

Actors working in theatre, picture show, television, and radio accept to learn specific skills. Techniques that work well in 1 blazon of acting may not work well in some other type of acting.

In theatre [edit]

To act on phase, actors demand to acquire the phase directions that appear in the script, such as "Stage Left" and "Stage Right". These directions are based on the actor's signal of view every bit he or she stands on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions "Upstage" (away from the audition) and "Downstage" (towards the audience)^[33] Theatre actors need to learn blocking, which is "...where and how an histrion moves on the phase during a play". Most scripts specify some blocking. The Manager also gives instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop.^[33]

Some theater actors need to learn stage combat, which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate paw-to-hand fighting or sword-fighting. Actors are coached by fight directors, who help them learn the choreographed sequence of fight actions.^[33]

In motion-picture show [edit]

Silent films [edit]

From 1894 to the late 1920s, movies were silent films. Silent film actors emphasized body language and facial expression, and then that the audience could ameliorate understand what an role player was feeling and portraying on screen. Much silent film acting is apt to strike modern-day audiences as simplistic or campy. The melodramatic acting style was in some cases a habit actors transferred from their former stage experience. Vaudeville theatre was an specially popular origin for many American silent film actors.^[34] The pervading presence of stage actors in pic was the cause of this flare-up from manager Marshall Neilan in 1917: "The sooner the stage people who have come into pictures get out, the ameliorate for the pictures." In other cases, directors such as John Griffith Wray required their actors to deliver larger-than-life expressions for emphasis. As early on as 1914, American viewers had begun to make known their preference for greater naturalness on screen.^[35]

Pioneering picture show directors in Europe and the United States recognized the different limitations and freedoms of the mediums of stage and screen by the early 1910s. Silent films became less vaudevillian in the mid-1910s, equally the differences between phase and screen became credible. Due to the piece of work of directors such as D West Griffith, cinematography became less stage-like, and the then-revolutionary shut-up shot allowed subtle and naturalistic acting. In America, D.Westward. Griffith's company Biograph Studios, became known for its innovative direction and acting, conducted to suit the cinema rather than the phase. Griffith realized that theatrical acting did not look good on picture and required his actors and actresses to get through weeks of film interim training.^[36]

Lillian Gish has been called film's "get-go true actress" for her piece of work in the period, as she pioneered new motion-picture show performing techniques, recognizing the crucial differences between phase and screen acting. Directors such equally Albert Capellani and Maurice Tourneur began to insist on naturalism in their films. By the mid-1920s many American silent films had adopted a more naturalistic acting style, though not all actors and directors accepted naturalistic, depression-key acting straight away; as late as 1927, films featuring expressionistic acting styles, such as City, were even so beingness released.^[35]

According to Anton Kaes, a silent motion-picture show scholar from the Academy of Wisconsin, American silent movie house began to see a shift in acting techniques between 1913 and 1921, influenced by techniques found in German silent moving-picture show. This is mainly attributed to the influx of emigrants from the Weimar Republic, "including film directors, producers, cameramen, lighting and stage technicians, besides as actors and actresses".^[37]

The advent of sound in film [edit]

Film actors have to learn to get used to and exist comfortable with a camera being in front of them.^[38] Motion picture actors need to learn to notice and stay on their "mark." This is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are optimized. Film actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on-screen tests. Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script.

Unlike theater actors, who develop characters for echo performances, picture show actors lack continuity, forcing them to come to all scenes (sometimes shot in reverse of the order in which they ultimately appear) with a fully developed character already.^[36]

"Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies information technology..., cinema demands a less flamboyant and stylized bodily performance from the thespian than does the theater." "The performance of emotion is the well-nigh hard aspect of film acting to primary: ...the film player must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of the countenance to create a believable grapheme."^[36] Some theatre stars "...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully (Laurence Olivier, Glenn Close, and Julie Andrews, for example), others take not..."^[36]

In television [edit]

"On a television receiver gear up, there are typically several cameras angled at the prepare. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get dislocated about which photographic camera to look into."^[33] Telly actors need to acquire to use lav mics (Lavaliere microphones).^[33] Idiot box actors need to understand the concept of "frame". "The term frame refers to the surface area that the photographic camera'south lens is capturing."^[33] Within the interim industry, there are four types of television set roles one could country on a bear witness. Each type varies in prominence, frequency of advent, and pay. The kickoff is known as a series regular—the chief actors on the bear witness as function of the permanent cast. Actors in recurring roles are under contract to appear in multiple episodes of a series. A co-star function is a pocket-size speaking office that usually only appears in one episode. A guest star is a larger part than a co-star office, and the character is often the central focus of the episode or integral to the plot.

In radio [edit]

Radio drama is a dramatized, purely acoustic functioning, broadcast on radio or published on audio media, such every bit tape or CD. With no visual component, radio drama depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help the listener imagine the characters and story: "It is auditory in the physical dimension but every bit powerful as a visual force in the psychological dimension."^[39]

Radio drama achieved widespread popularity within a decade of its initial evolution in the 1920s. By the 1940s, information technology was a leading international popular entertainment. With the advent of television in the 1950s, however, radio drama lost some of its popularity, and in some countries has never regained large audiences. Notwithstanding, recordings of OTR (one-time-time radio) survive today in the sound athenaeum of collectors and museums, too as several online sites such every bit Internet Annal.

As of 2011^[update], radio drama has a minimal presence on terrestrial radio in the U.s.. Much of American radio drama is restricted to rebroadcasts or podcasts of programs from previous decades. However, other nations still accept thriving traditions of radio drama. In the United Kingdom, for example, the BBC produces and broadcasts hundreds of new radio plays each year on Radio 3, Radio 4, and Radio 4 Actress. Podcasting has also offered the means of creating new radio dramas, in addition to the distribution of vintage programs.

The terms "audio drama"^[40] or "audio theatre" are sometimes used synonymously with "radio drama" with 1 possible distinction: audio drama or audio theatre may not necessarily exist intended specifically for broadcast on radio. Audio drama, whether newly produced or OTR classics, can be found on CDs, cassette tapes, podcasts, webcasts, and conventional circulate radio.

Cheers to advances in digital recording and Cyberspace distribution, radio drama is experiencing a revival.^[41]

See also [edit]

• Chip part
• Torso double
• Cameo appearance
• Cast member
• Character actor
• Kid histrion
• Commedia dell'arte
• Dramatis personæ
• Droll
• Extra (acting)
• Farce
• GOTE
• Kabuki
• Leading actor
• Lists of actors
• Matinee idol
• Meisner technique
• Mime artist
• Movie star
• Music hall
• Pantomime
• Pornographic film thespian
• Applied Aesthetics
• Presentational and representational acting
• Supporting thespian
• Understudy
• Vaudeville
• Voice acting

References [edit]

1. ^ "The dramatic world can be extended to include the 'author', the 'audition' and even the 'theatre'; just these remain 'possible' surrogates, not the 'actual' referents as such" (Elam 1980, 110).
2. ^ "Definition of role player". Hypokrites (related to our word for hypocrite) besides means, less often, "to answer" the tragic chorus. See Weimann (1978, 2); see also Csapo and Slater, who offering translations of classical source fabric using the term hypocrisis (acting) (1994, 257, 265–267).
3. ^ ^{a b} Neziroski, Lirim (2003). "narrative, lyric, drama". Theories of Media :: Keywords Glossary :: multimedia. University of Chicago. Retrieved xiv March 2009. For example, until the late 1600s, audiences were opposed to seeing women on stage, because of the belief stage performance reduced them to the status of showgirls and prostitutes. Even Shakespeare's plays were performed by boys dressed in drag.
4. ^ ^{a b} Giacomo Oreglia (2002). Commedia dell'arte. Ordfront. ISBN 91-7324-602-half dozen
5. ^ ^{a b} JULIET DUSINBERRE. "Boys Becoming Women in Shakespeare's Plays" (PDF). S-sj.org\accessdate=22 Oct 2017.
6. ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, fifteen–xix).
7. ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 75)
8. ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)
9. ^ Wilmeth, Don B.; Bigsby, C.West.Eastward. (1998). The Cambridge history of American theatre . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Printing. pp. 449–450. ISBN978-0-521-65179-0.
10. ^ James Eli Adams, ed., Encyclopedia of the Victorian era (2004) 1:2-3.
11. ^ George Rowell, Theatre in the Age of Irving (Rowman & Littlefield, 1981).
12. ^ Jeffrey Richards (2007). Sir Henry Irving: A Victorian Actor and His Earth. A&C Black. p. 109. ISBN9781852855918.
13. ^ Foster Hirsch, The Boys from Syracuse: The Shuberts' Theatrical Empire (Cooper Square Press, 2000).
14. ^ Guerrasio, Jason. (19 December 2014) What It Means To Exist 'Method' Archived 2017-06-23 at the Wayback Machine. Tribecafilminstitute.org. Retrieved on 2016-02-10.
15. ^ "BBC - Radio 4 - Woman's Hour -Women Actors in Ancient Rome". Bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 22 October 2017.
16. ^ "Smallweed". The Guardian. 23 July 2005. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. "Whereas women'south parts in plays have hitherto been acted by men in the habits of women ... we practice allow and give leave for the hereafter that all women's parts be acted past women," Charles Two ordained in 1662. According to Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Legend, the start actress to exploit this new liberty was Margaret Hughes, as Desdemona in Othello on Dec eight, 1660.
17. ^ M.A. Katritzky: Women, Medicine and Theatre 1500–1750: Literary Mountebanks and Performing
18. ^ "Women every bit actresses" (PDF). Notes and Queries. The New York Times. eighteen October 1885. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2009. At that place seems no doubt that actresses did non perform on the phase till the Restoration, in the earliest years of which Pepys says for the first time he saw an actress upon the phase. Charles II, must take brought the usage from the Continent, where women had long been employed instead of boys or youths in the representation of female characters.
19. ^ Fisk, Deborah Payne (2001). "The Restoration Extra". In Owen, Susan J. A companion to restoration drama, pg. 73, (1. publ. ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631219231.
20. ^ 'Studies in hysteria': actress and courtesan, Sarah Bernhardt and Mrs Patrick Campbell
21. ^ Richard Gunde, Culture and Community of Mainland china (2002), folio 63.
22. ^ Andrea Mandell, Can Eddie Redmayne nab Oscar No. ii?, xx Dec 2015, U.s. Today
23. ^ Pat Easterling, Edith Hall: Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession
24. ^ "actress, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. November 2010. Although actor refers to a person who acts regardless of gender, where this term "is increasingly preferred", actress remains in general use; histrion is increasingly preferred for performers of both sexes as a gender-neutral term.
25. ^ ^{a b c d} Pritchard, Stephen (24 September 2011). "The readers' editor on... Role player or actress?". Theguardian.com . Retrieved 22 Oct 2017.
26. ^ Goodman, Lizbeth; Holledge, Julie (1998). The Routledge reader in gender and performance . New York: Routledge. p. 8. ISBN0-415-16583-0.
27. ^ Linden, Sheri (eighteen January 2009). "From actor to actress and back once again". Amusement. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 14 March 2009. It would exist several decades before the word "extra" appeared – 1700, according to the Oxford English language Dictionary, more than than a century afterwards the give-and-take "actor" was start used to announce a theatrical performer, supplanting the less professional-sounding "role player."
28. ^ Spolin, Viola (1999). Improvisation for the Theater: A Handbook of Teaching and Directing Techniques (third ed.). Evanston, Sick: Northwestern Univ Press. pp. Introduction to the 3rd Edition. ISBN0810140004. OCLC 41176682.
29. ^ ^{a b} Jennifer Lawrence Speaks Out On Making Less Than Male person Co-Stars. Forbes.com (xiii October 2015). Retrieved on 2016-02-10.
30. ^ Woodruff, Betsy. (23 Feb 2015) Gender wage gap in Hollywood: It's very, very wide. Slate.com. Retrieved on 2016-02-ten.
31. ^ "How much do Hollywood campaigns for an Oscar toll?". Stephenfollows.com. 12 January 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
32. ^ Female Picture show Stars Feel Earnings Plunge Later Historic period 34. Diversity (7 Feb 2014). Retrieved on 2016-02-ten.
33. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Industry Tips". Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved iv Apr 2014.
34. ^ Lewis, John (2008). American Film: A History (Starting time ed.). New York, NY: Due west. West. Norton & Visitor. ISBN978-0-393-97922-0.
35. ^ ^{a b} Brownlow, Kevin (1968). "Acting". The Parade'due south Gone By. University of California Press. pp. 344–353. ISBN9780520030688.
36. ^ ^{a b c d} "Movies and Motion picture". infoplease.com.
37. ^ Kaes, Anton (1990). "Silent Cinema". Monatshefte.
38. ^ "Auditions for Film: Movie Interim Tips and Techniques". Ace-your-audition.com . Retrieved 22 October 2017.
39. ^ Tim Crook: Radio drama. Theory and practice Archived 1 July 2014 at the Wayback Car. London; New York: Routledge, 1999, p. viii.
40. ^ Compare the entry to Hörspiel e.1000. in: dict.cc – Deutsch-Englisch-Wörterbuch
41. ^ Newman, Barry (25 February 2010). "Return With The states to the Thrilling Days Of Yesteryear — Via the Internet". Wall Street Journal.

Sources [edit]

• Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann Arbor: The U of Michigan P. ISBN 0-472-08275-2.
• Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-ix.
• Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Course and Role. Ed. Robert Schwartz. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2.

Further reading [edit]

• An Thespian's Work past Constantin Stanislavski
• A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method by Lee Strasberg (Plume Books, ISBN 0-452-26198-viii, 1990)
• Sanford Meisner on Interim by Sanford Meisner (Vintage, ISBN 0-394-75059-4, 1987)
• Messages to a Young Actor by Robert Brustein (Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-00806-2, 2005)
• The Empty Space by Peter Brook (1st ed past Atheneum, ISBN 0-689-70558-1, 1968)
• The Technique of Acting by Stella Adler (Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-05299-iii, 1988)

External links [edit]

• Screen Actors Gild (SAG): a matrimony representing U. S. film and Tv actors.
• Actors' Equity Association (AEA): a union representing U. Due south. theatre actors and stage managers.
• American Federation of Goggle box and Radio Artists (AFTRA): a matrimony representing U. Southward. television receiver and radio actors and broadcasters (on-air journalists, etc.).
• British Actors' Equity: a trade union representing Uk artists, including actors, singers, dancers, choreographers, stage managers, theatre directors and designers, variety and circus artists, television and radio presenters, walk-on and supporting artists, stunt performers and directors and theatre fight directors.
• Media Entertainment & Arts Alliance: an Australian/New Zealand trade union representing everyone in the media, entertainment, sports, and arts industries.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor

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